California

The California Republic, commonly known simply as California, is a nation on the west coast of North America. It is bordered to the north by Lower Columbia, to the east by the United States, to the south by Sonora, and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. At 938,800 square kilometers, California is the 31st largest country by area. California is centered on the fertile Central Valley and Mediterranean-climate coasts, while giving way to deserts of the Mojave, Sonora, and the Great Basin towards the east. California's border with the United States falls within the range of the Rocky Mountains.

Originally inhabited by various indigenous people since at least 10,000 BC, California was discovered by Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, a Spanish explorer, in 1542. The territory was subsequently claimed and colonized by Spain, who established 21 Catholic Missions in the Californias. In 1821, California became part of the newly-independent Mexican state. Between the 1770s and this period, the Californias began to be settled by republican refugees from the United States. These refugees sought to establish English-speaking republics in the West after the failure of the British colonies to form an independent republic. By the 1830s, the Californias and Texas became majority English-speaking. After the Texan Revolution, the Californias declared independence, achieving it after the capture of Mexican Antonio López de Santa Anna. Shortly afterward, the country split into California and Sonora.

California experienced rapid growth through the 19th century, seeing large waves of immigration and industrialization. By the end of the 1800s, California was considered a regional power, with established trade partners throughout the Pacific Rim and the Americas. In the early 1900s, California saw closer cooperation with Sonora and the United States, establishing multiple agreements regarding free trade and defense. Though California was neutral in World War I, California fulfilled its agreements after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. The war effort brought California out of the Great Depression and proved California's resolve to assist its allies. After the war, California became a global technological leader. The so-called "Silicon Valley" centered on San Jose became the center of innovation in electronics and computing. Strong growth of the service sector, especially after 1960, led to the high development California experiences to this day.

Today, California is a highly developed country, enjoying the world's 14th largest economy by purchasing power parity and among the highest average incomes per capita in the world. The economy of California is largely post industrial, with the service sector dominating economic output. While dwarfed by the neighboring United States, California is considered a middle power, holding a moderate degree of military and, in particular, economic power projection over the north Pacific region. California holds a record of being very socially and economically liberal, boasting high ranks on account of LGBT and human rights and is highly ranked among countries enjoying high economic freedom. California is a signatory of the Trans Pacific Partnership and is a member of the OECD, NAFTA, and is a founding member of the United Nations.

Etymology
While officially named the California Republic, the Spanish term Las Californias refers to both California and Sonora, historically occupying the geographic regions of Alta and Baja California. While Alta California referred to the region north of the Baja California peninsula, its contemporary use is limited to the territory of the California Republic.

California itself is derived from the the Spanish myth of Calafia, a character developed by writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo around the year 1500. She was the queen of an island kingdom of Arab women known as "California". The name Calafia comes from the word Caliph or khalifa, an Islamic religious title. The discovery of California, originally believed to be an island, led to the application of the name to the island. The application of mythology to places in the Americas was typical during an era of discovery.

Pre-independence
Before European colonization, California was inhabited by a wide variety of Native American tribes. In fact, California is considered to have had the most linguistically and culturally diverse collection of Native Americans in North America before the arrival of Europeans. The Chumash, Pomo, and Salinan chiefdoms are among the more significant groups of the period, having engaged in trade, wars, and alliances with other groups.

The Channel Islands were the first part of California discovered by Europeans, when Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo first discovered Santa Catalina Island in October 1542. Cabrillo sailed along the entire coast of California on the same voyage, claiming the territory as part of the Spanish Empire.

While claimed by Spain under New Spain (later Mexico), the area remained sparsely populated apart from established settlements in Sonora and southern Alta California and various Catholic missions. In the late 1700s, the area began to see trickles of immigration from the British Empire, particularly those seeking to find new sources of income. Many established vineyards along the south and central coasts of the country, which had a climate suitable to the cultivation of wine. After independence in 1821, the area became part of Mexico. As part of the empresario program, aimed at settling the northern territories of Mexico, instituted by the Mexican government, many migrants from the United Provinces began migrating to the Californias, particularly the areas settled by the British migrants, assimilating into their communities due to the existing Anglo population. They began to outnumber the Mexican population within a decade and began to settle in more numbers, increasing the Anglo population in the countryside and even in the cities, especially Hermilloso, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Monterey, and others, which saw increased industrialization under British and American expatriates. Many settlers also sought to settle in California since their original destination, Tejas, was being settled by pro-slavery Carolinians and wished to avoid the practice. By the 1830s, the Anglo population of California was quite sizable and influential.

When the Texan Republic revolted in 1835 after Santa Ana’s drive for centralization and a clampdown on the Anglo population of Mexico’s northern territories, the Anglo population of California chose to side with the Texan rebels and organized their own military units in the Bear Flag Revolt. The forces overwhelmed the stationed Mexican troops and the rebellion achieved high support from the native Mexican population, who themselves began to see themselves more as “Californios” than Mexicans. The distance of California from the heart of Mexico and his defeat in the war against Texas prompted Santa Ana to grant California independence on December 18th, 1836. The Californian-Texan border was subsequently decided on October 7th, 1837.

Post-Independence
As part of the initial restructuring of the territory, the new government decided to retain the nomenclature of the existing territories and settlements, but restructured the administrative divisions, while retaining the settlement of Monterey as the administrative center of the territory, due to its advantageous location as a naval base and central location. The initial governmental congresses were heated, particularly regarding governmental structure. While most supported the idea of a presidential republic and a federal government with a constitution modeled on that of the British United Provinces and Carolina, some, especially from the southern regions of Sonora and Baja California, wanted to keep an equal status for Mexicans and Anglos, while the rest, while accepting of the idea to grant Mexicans citizenship, wanted English to be the primary language. The southern territories cut ties with Monterey in May 1838 and formed the Republic of Sonora.

The first President of California was Isaac Graham, who organized the conflict that lead to California’s independence. He oversaw the expansion of the cities of Monterey and San Francisco while also establishing a territorial legislature, the California Assembly. As part of an effort to increase the population and Anglo presence in California, Graham convinced the California Assembly to institute the Settlement Act of 1838, offering cheap parcels of land to potential settlers. Unfortunately, it took until 1848 for California to see the population boom the way Graham had anticipated. This came as a result of a lucky prospector who discovered a gold nugget south of the Sacramento River. Attempting to profit from this discovery, a large wave of migrants from British North America and Europe flooded into California’s Central Valley to settle. While the vast majority were unable to find the gold they wanted to find, they chose to stay in California, oftentimes settling on farms in the fertile Central Valley, settling in cities to seek employment at the various factories being opened, or off to the east to work on railroad construction or even simply to try to find gold in untouched territory. In no time, California achieved a reputation of being a land of riches and opportunity, seen as an alternative to British North America.

Among the early settlers of California were members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, known as Mormons. A group led by Brigham Young traveled to the Salt Lake Valley in an effort to escape persecution in New York, Charlotiana, and Missouri. They founded Salt Lake City in 1847 and paved the way for a larger influx of Mormons into California. When communication was established between Monterey and Salt Lake City, Graham allowed them to settle as long as they recognized the government of California as the sovereign of the territory. When they agreed, Graham agreed to also recognize their freedom to practice their religion.

Isaac Graham served three four-year terms as president, being succeeded by Pío Pico in 1850, a prominent Californio that served in local government in Los Angeles, designed the Bear Flag, and helped establish the independent Californian state. As a businessman, Pico supported the growth of businesses in California that helped foster economic growth and attractiveness as a destination for settlement. He’s best known for being a rancher in Los Angeles and supporting the cities growth after retiring from political life in 1858. Other notable feats include attempts at making Spanish an official language besides English, but the California Assembly rejected such notions.

In 1858, John Fremont, an American explorer, and former military officer, became President of California after Pio Pio served two terms. After formally migrating to California in 1847, Fremont quickly became a prominent politician and served as a Representative for San Joaquin from 1848 to 1852. In the hopes of finding a suitable route for a potential railroad linking California to the Dominion of Missouri, he spent 1853 and early 1854 exploring much of the Great Basin. He returned to San Francisco with a hero’s welcome.

Fremont’s presidency served to solidify California’s national identity. As a former British-Carolinian military officer, he introduced military reforms that established a more organized professional army, including a functional navy that served beyond patrolling trade in the Pacific Ocean. He was an expert diplomat, formally burying the hatchet with Sonora and introducing trade pacts with them and the British Empire. These brought huge benefits to the economy. They encouraged trade and investment between California and its neighbors allowed industries to grow, bringing California into the Industrial Age. This growth prompted further migration to the country. Fremont also sought further goals, encouraging agricultural production in the Central Valley to export grain and fruit abroad, especially to Lower Columbia, Australia, Chile, and Japan.

After 4 terms, Fremont was replaced by Leland Stanford in 1872. Graham, Pio Pio, Fremont, and Stanford are widely considered the “Architects of California”, credited with laying the foundations for modern California. Leland Stanford served as Vice President under Fremont during his last term. Stanford arrived in California during the Gold Rush, becoming a wealthy entrepreneur and founding Stanford University, the most prestigious university in California and one of the most prestigious in the world. He laid the foundations that helped establish the San Francisco Bay Area as a global center for innovation. From 1860 to 1868, Stanford was the president of California Railways Company, overseeing the completion of the Californian and Sonoran sections of the Transcontinental Railroad linking New York City with San Francisco. He also oversaw the development of a central railroad from Los Santos to San Francisco, linking the Californian and Sonoran economies.

As President of California, Stanford only served one term, the first president to do so. Despite having high approval ratings, Stanford preferred to remain in the private industry. Nevertheless, as President, he helped establish the California Transport Authority, the federal overseer of transportation in the country, the California Labor Authority, initially serving to ensure employment opportunities in the Central Valley, but later developing into California’s highest worker’s rights authority, and the California Central Bank, the central bank of California. As such, Stanford’s legacy as President of California was as an administrative reformer, tailoring the government to perform as an economic player.

Stanford was succeeded by long-time diplomat Romualdo Pacheco, the second Californio president, in 1876. Serving two terms, his presidency was mostly uneventful, though he oversaw the continued development of relations between California and Central and South American nations. Pacheco was succeeded by another uneventful presidency under Washington Bartlett, who died three years into his presidency in 1887, succeeded for one year by Robert Waterman.

Waterman proved to be a more competent president, reelected in 1888. His strong conviction in the conservation of nature led to the establishment, under guidance by close advisor John Muir, of the first Californian national park in Yosemite in 1889. With the establishment of similar parks in the Muir Woods, the Giant Forest, and the Big Sur paved the way for the establishment of the California Conservation Department in 1892. The CCD became a model for similar departments established in other countries. This granted Waterman much popularity, and he was reelected in 1892. In 1893, oil reserves were discovered in Los Angeles, sparking a large population and investment boom in the region.

The tenure of Waterman also saw increased racial tensions between immigrants from East Asia, particularly China and Japan, and locals, culminating in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1886, which sought to limit migration of ethnic Chinese into California. Nevertheless, those remaining in California became a major part of the workforce, as employers found them to be much more willing to accept lower wages than locals or even European immigrants. These migrants helped complete the Transcontinental Railway in California as well as other railroad projects. First and second-generation East Asians assimilated into Californian society, and this generally helped foster cooperation between the groups. Waterman was succeeded by James Budd in 1896 and died shortly afterward due to poor health.

Early 19th Century
Migrating to California in 1858, James Budd was the last Californian president born outside of California. Budd influenced the development of the secret ballot to facilitate the efficacy of the democratic process in California. He also sought to simplify the bureaucracy in the country, aiming to reorganize bloated departments established by Stanford, and successfully decreased government expenditures. This, coupled with growing wealth resulting from the Los Angeles oil boom, resulted in greater state revenues. After two terms, Budd was succeeded by George Pardee in 1904.

Regarded as a great social reformer, Pardee, inspired by his experiences during his education in the German Empire, organized the California Public Education System, which sought to create an effective, free, public education to all Californians, passed legislation pertaining to the limitation of corporate monopolies, and expanded on Waterman’s efforts at environmental conservation. Most old-growth forests in the country came under the protection of the CCD. Pardee also created a Board of Forestry under the CCD that sought to regulate logging and reforestation. Due to clashes with the California Railways Company, who at the time enjoyed substantial political clout, Pardee was unable to obtain his party’s nomination for reelection in 1908.

The turmoil the Republican Party saw in 1908 that saw Pardee alienated from the position of party leader led to a rise in popularity of the Social Democrat Party that welcomed Pardee, who became the first former president to serve as vice president, under Hiram Johnson, who succeeded him. Johnson was a progressive, who saw the issue of poor working conditions during the so-called California Golden Age as unacceptable. Johnson strengthened the ability of the California Labor Authority to improve worker conditions, leading to the development of the California Labor Authority into the highest authority for worker’s rights. After reelection in 1912, he rejected the notions of California getting involved in World War I, choosing instead to economically aid the Allies, which resulted in the rise of the arms industry in California.

After the war, California entered the Roaring Twenties. The enormous wealth generated during the war helped foster cultural innovations in the country. Los Angeles, the metropolitan that rose to the rank of the population center of California since the 1880s, became the center of the global cinematic industry. The favorable climate and wealth of resources meant that Los Angeles was the prime location for such a development. Hollywood, a prominent community in the Los Angeles area, became home to various movie and music studios, a source of pride for the region that stands true to this day. Johnson proved a successful president that encouraged such developments. In 1922, he was replaced by Republican James Rolph.

James Rolph resigned as Mayor of San Francisco to run for president and had obtained a positive reputation in that position. Rolph became president in a turbulent period in California’s history. The country had reached a population of over six million, and the collection of much of this population in more arid areas of Los Angeles and parts of the Central Valley meant that the government to seriously consider a solution to more efficiently manage water in the country. The Central Valley Irrigation and Water Management Act of 1928 started the process of irrigating the Central Valley, including the planning of various water reservoirs and aqueducts to give Los Angeles and the Central Valley, long the agricultural center of California, access to sufficient water. This was a major development during Rolph’s tenure, but he was not credited for the success of the project, which was mostly supported and raised as an issue by Congressmen. He was succeeded by former judge Fletcher Bowron.

Bowron, a volunteer Californian soldier fighting with British Susquehanna forces during World War I, was a popular Republican who oversaw the change in party policies towards a more pragmatic approach. This was prompted by the beginning of the Great Depression. During his campaign, he promised various projects to help employ those who lost their jobs due to decreased opportunities as a result of tariff wars by the great powers in America and Europe. The California Highway Act of 1932 and the continuation of the Central Valley irrigation program helped push the water crisis back several decades and develop a large scale highway network to help facilitate transportation by motor vehicles throughout the country. These programs also helped cooperation between California and Sonora. The construction of the Boulder Dam, which began in 1933, along the Colorado River helped conserve water for the use of people living in cities in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts. Such projects helped mitigate employment issues in California.

The presidency of Bowron proved massively successful. Bowron saw the outbreak of World War II as an opportunity for California to supply the Allied powers just as in World War I in order to stimulate the economy, but the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor invoked long-standing agreements with the United States for California to declare war on Japan and Germany. This prompted one of the greatest examples of armament in history, as coastal cities across California constructed hundreds of ships and billions of dollars worth of munitions and aircraft for the war effort in the Pacific. California’s GDP skyrocketed. When the war ended in 1945, Bowron served 4 terms and refused to run again in 1946, believing his legacy as president had been preserved.

Post War
J. Bracken Lee (1946-1954) and George Dewey Clyde (1954-1962) succeeded Bowron’s presidency and were active in developing California’s post-war economy and society. Both conservatives, their legacy was preserved in their reorganizing of the state budget, focusing on societal development, particularly education. Lee was particularly infamous for his opposition to the income tax but failed to achieve such a pursuit.

Paul Laxalt, who served one term, was a Nevada native who won the Constitutional Democratic nomination and soon afterward the presidency on the promises of extending the preservation efforts of California landscapes beyond the Sierra Nevada and fixing the budget constraints created by his two predecessors. His time as president ended after one term due to the unpopularity of his tax hikes in pursuit of that promise.

Pat Brown served from 1966 to 1978 as one of the most significant presidents of the modern era, having inherited a water and natural resource and racial crisis. In his efforts, he helped fund the California National Water Act of 1968 that sought to redirect unused irrigated water and divert it towards areas of higher demand. He also passed reforms pertaining to the issue of discrimination in the country. He passed laws making discrimination against race, gender, and ethnicity illegal across all spheres of the economy and society. This came after his strong stance in support of protests and riots fighting for racial equality between Hispanic, Anglo, and African-Californians living in the Los Angeles area that erupted in 1965 during the election campaign. His successful reforms granted him high popularity among Californians, helping his son, Jerry Brown, succeed him in 1978.

Jerry Brown served two terms between 1978 and 1986. As Pat Brown’s son, Jerry Brown tended to have the same views and policies as his father while pursuing fiscal conservation. This meant he pushed for decreasing property taxes in many municipalities, with mixed results, and also making it more difficult to raise federal taxes by imposing stricter rules for the passage of such laws in the California Assembly. His interest in environmental issues led to relatively successful attempts at decreasing California’s carbon footprint. This included imposing tax incentives for solar powered homes and minimizing tax breaks for major oil companies.

Modern day
George Deukmejian, who served from 1986 to 1998, was the son of two Armenian immigrants that settled in Los Angeles from the Ottoman Empire. He viewed his term as President as an opportunity to “correct” the presidency of his predecessor. While sharing many of his views, including a promise not to raise taxes, Deukmejian was concerned about Jerry Brown’s lax policy on crime fighting. Deukmejian increased law enforcement expenditures, enforced stricter capital punishment laws, and cut the budgets of various government agencies, giving the California government a large surplus budget. He used this money to improve infrastructure across the country. His most significant legacy, however, was ensuring that the federal minimum wage remain proportional with inflation as well as making the first steps toward creating a universal healthcare system in California, particularly by subsidizing insurance in order to get uninsured Californians suffering from various serious illnesses insured. He did this by increasing taxes on tobacco products, the one time he ever raised taxes while in office.

The Browns and Deukmejian oversaw California’s transition to a service-based economy. Entertainment companies in based in the State of San Gabriel and various technological companies in the Bay Area sprung up, introducing countless white collar jobs to the labor market. The period from 1950 to 2000 saw a significant period of growth for the middle class. Free trade agreements with Sonora and the United States helped foster this growth, as well, as demand for Californian services rose internationally. To this day, the Los Angeles area is considered a leading city in the entertainment industry while the Bay Area, especially the so-called Silicon Valley, continues to be the host for thousands of startups and major tech-companies like Google, Facebook, and AMD.

Mike Leavitt became president in 1998 on a platform of environmental preservation and spent much of his presidency strengthening the CCD and the Californian Illness and Disease Agency to ensure continued preservation. He attempted to lead efforts of water preservation to mitigate continued tension on California’s water supply. He also spearheaded efforts to incentivize the establishment of a desalinization plant in San Gabriel. After the attacks of September 11th, Leavitt took a strong stance in support of the United States and pledged to take part in the War on Terror.

A Tahoe native, Brian Sandoval succeeded Leavitt in 2006 and pushed for improvements on Deukmejian’s healthcare reforms. He also provided tax breaks and subsidies for companies such as Tesla Motors and various solar energy companies to help reduce California’s carbon footprint. These incentives were successful in helping such companies grow and become sustainable. Sandoval also pushed for immigration reform that allowed for Asian and Hispanic refugees to have an opportunity to immigrate to California.

Kamala Harris succeeded Sandoval as the first Indian/Jamaican-American and first woman president of California. Her platform relied on improving international relations and pursuing a more active role in the international community. As the current president, Harris has sought ascension into the Alliance of Independent Nations and affirmed California’s membership in the Trans Pacific Partnership. Harris is also pursuing more reforms to healthcare and immigration and is also advocating for stronger environmental policies.