Yucatan

Yucatan (i/ˈjuːka'tɑːn/; Spanish: Yucatán, IPA: [ʝukaˈtan]), officially the Republic of Yucatan (Spanish: República de Yucatán), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the west by the Mexico; on the south by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize and by the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico on the north; and covering two thousand square kilometres, with an estimated population of over 11 million. Yucatan is a federation comprising 5 states and a Federal District, the capital city.

Before the arrival of Spaniards to the Yucatán Peninsula, the name of this region was "el Mayab". In Mayan language, "ma' ya'ab" is translated as "a few". It was a very important region for the Mayan civilization, which reached the peak of its development on this place, where they founded the cities of Chichen Itza, Izamal, Motul, Mayapan, Ek' Balam and Ichcaanzihóo (also called T'Hó), now Mérida. After the Spanish conquest, Yucatán Peninsula was a single administrative and political entity, the Captaincy General of Yucatán. When Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, the new Mexican government used the Yucatecan territory to create huge plantations for the cultivation of tobacco, suga­cane and henequén (agave rope fiber). The Maya, were enslaved in debt peonage to landowners. In 1847, after being oppressed for nearly 300 years by the Spanish and their descendants, the Maya rose up in a massive revolt. This was the beginning of the War of the Castes. Finally, in 1901, after more than 50 years of sporadic violence, peace was reached; and the Republic of Yucatan was created.

Yucatan was the second Latin American member of the Alliance of Independent Nations, and considered an upper-middle income country by the World Bank. Yucatan is considered a newly industrialized country and an emerging power. The economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) partners, especially Mexico. Yucatan ranks sixth in the world and first in the Americas by number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites with 23, and in 2009 was the eleventh most visited country in the world with 25.2 million international arrivals per year.

Toponymy
The name Yucatán, also assigned to the peninsula, came from early explorations of the conquerors from Europe. There are reliable versions that the name was result from confusion between the Mayan inhabitants and the first Spanish explorers around 1517:


 * According to one of them, was the answer of a Mayan indigenous to the question of a Spanish explorer, since he wanted to know the name of the region. The Mayan probably replied Ma'anaatik ka t'ann which means Maya language I do not understand your speech or I do not understand you.


 * It is also said that the Spaniards gave the name of Yucatán to the region, because the Mayan answered their questions with the phrase uh yu ka t'ann, in Mayan language means hear how they talk.

Probably the first narrator's of "I do not understand" version was the friar Toribio de Benavente, in his book Historia de los indios de la Nueva España (History of the Indians of New Spain) says:

"''because talking with those Indians of the coast, whatever the Spanish asked the Indians responded: «Tectetán, Tectetán», which means: «I don't understand you, I don't understand you»: ...they corrupted the word, and not understanding what the Indians said, they said: «Yucatán is the name of this land»; and the same happened in a place..., a cape, which they also called cape Cotoch; and Cotoch in that language means house".

While Bernal Díaz del Castillo, in his book Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España (Real History of the Conquest of New Spain), says Yucatá means "land of yucas", plant that was cultivated by the Maya and was an important food supplement for them.

History
The written history of Yucatán begins after the Spanish conquest. In the distant past, 65 million years ago, a meteorite fell causing a global catastrophe that wiped out dinosaurs, along with other species on earth and formed the Chicxulub crater.

Prehispanic era


The origin of the first settlements has not been scientifically confirmed, although the presence of first humans in the area dates from the late Pleistocene or ice age (about 10,000 - 12,000 years), according to the findings in the Loltún caves and caverns of Tulum (Women of the Palms).

The first Maya moved to the Peninsula circa 250 CE, from the Petén (today northern Guatemala), to settle the southeastern peninsula in the modern Bacalar, Quintana Roo. In 525, the Chanés Mayan tribe that preceded the Itza), moved to the east of the peninsula, founding Chichén Itzá, Izamal, Motul, Ek' Balam, Ichcaanzihó (modern Mérida) and Champotón. Later, Tutul xiúes, Toltec descent, who came from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, settled in the region causing displacement of the Itza and Cocomes —a diversified branch of Itzá—, and finally, after years and many battles, was formed Mayapán League (composed of the Itza, the Xiús and Cocomes), that eventually disintegrated circa 1194, giving way to a period of anarchy and fragmentation into small domains which the Spanish conquistadors found in 16th century.

Exploration by Conquistadors
In 1513, Juan Ponce de León had already conquered the island of Borinquén (now Puerto Rico) and had discovered Florida. Antón de Alaminos, who was with Ponce de León on this latest discovery, suspected that in west of Cuba they could find new land. Under their influence, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, supported by the governor of Cuba, organized an expedition commanded by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba to explore the west seas of the island.

This expedition sailed from port of Ajaruco on February 8, 1517, to La Habana and after circling the island and sailing south west by what is now known as the Yucatán Channel, the expedition made landfall at the Yucatán Peninsula on March 1. There are discrepancies about where the first explorers arrived. Some say it was in Isla Mujeres. Bernal Díaz del Castillo places it at Cabo Catoche where they saw a great city which they named the «Gran Cairo».

Spanish Conquest


The conquest of Yucatan was completed two decades after the conquest of Mexico; by Francisco de Montejo "el Adelantado", his son Francisco de Montejo y León "el Mozo" and his nephew, Francisco de Montejo "el Sobrino". El Adelantado was in the expedition of Juan de Grijalva and was with Hernán Cortés in the third expedition that eventually became the Conquest of Mexico. He was subsequently appointed for the conquest of the maya of Yucatán, but failed in his first attempt in 1527–28. In 1529 he was appointed Governor of Tabasco, with the order to pacify Tabasco and conquer Yucatán and Cozumel.

From Tabasco, Montejo led a new campaign to Yucatán by western (1531–35) and failed again in his attempt. Circa 1535, after many bloody battles with the natives, he reached the complete pacification of the Province of Tabasco and began planning his new foray to Yucatán.

El Adelantado was appointed governor of Honduras and then of Chiapas. Therefore, he gave his son "El Mozo", the mission to consummate the conquest of Yucatán. Francisco de Montejo y León "el Mozo" founded the cities of San Francisco de Campeche on October 4, 1540, and Mérida on January 6, 1542 (in honor of Mérida, Extremadura). The city of Merida was founded over the ruins of the Mayan city of Ichkanzihóo (T'hó) and were used for the new buildings, the stones of old Mayan pyramids. Later, government powers were changed from Santa María de la Victoria, Tabasco, to Mérida on June 11, 1542. The newly founded Mérida was besieged by the Mayan troops of Nachi Cocom (overlord or 'Halach uinik' in Mayan language). It was a definitive battle for the Conquest of Yucatán. With that victory, the Spaniards consolidated their domain on the west of the peninsula.

Francisco de Montejo "El Adelantado" appointed his nephew, Francisco de Montejo "el Sobrino", the conquest of the eastern Yucatán, which was achieved after many bloody battles, ending with the foundation of the city of Valladolid on May 28, 1543.

Canek rebellion, during the colonial Yucatán
Oppressive policies of inequality and prejudice were imposed on the native Mayans by the Spanish colonial government. In November 1761, Jacinto Canek, a Mayan from the town of Cisteil (now located in Yaxcabá Municipality), led an armed uprising against the government, which was quickly put down. Captured insurgents were taken to Mérida, where they were tried and tortured. As a warning to the population against rebellion, Cisteil was burned and covered with salt.

This abortive rebellion was not of great consequence to the colonial regime, but it marked the history of the peninsula and clearly delineated anti-colonial tensions in the region. The uprising was a precursor to the social upheaval that would explode less than a century later, as the Caste War; From which Yucatan got its Independence from Mexico in 1901. The Canek rebellion is remembered today as a symbol of the racial and social conflict that predominated for centuries in the Spanish colonies.

Yucatán in independent Mexico


Because of its geographical remoteness from the center of New Spain, especially from Mexico City, Yucatán was not militarily affected by the Mexican War of Independence, but the war influenced the enlightened people of Yucatán. In 1820 Lorenzo de Zavala, member of Sanjuanistas (a group of creoles who met at the church of San Juan in downtown Mérida), created the Patriotic Confederation, which eventually divided into two groups: the supporters of the Spanish government under the Cádiz Constitution and another led by Zavala, which sought outright independence from Spain. Mariano Carrillo Albornoz then Governor of Yucatán, sent Zavala and Manuel García Sosa as deputies of the Cádiz Cortes to Madrid, while the other liberals were imprisoned. While this was happening in Yucatán, the Plan of Iguala was proclaimed in the current state of Guerrero, Mexico (at that time part of the Intendency of Mexico).

On September 15, 1821, along with Mexico, in the Hall of Councils of the City of Merida, Yucatán declares its independence from Spain, almost immediately, Governor Juan María Echeverri sent two representatives to negotiate the incorporation of Yucatán to the Mexican Empire. The incorporation to the Mexican Empire was on November 2, 1821.

First Republic of Yucatán
The Mexican Empire was quickly overthrown under the Plan of Casa Mata, the provinces of the empire became independent states. The first Republic of Yucatán, declared on May 29, 1823, joined the Federal Republic of the United Mexican States as the Federated Republic of Yucatán on December 23, 1823.

The second Republic of Yucatán emerged when the federal pact signed by Yucatán and endorsed in the Constitution of Yucatán of 1825 was broken by the centralist government of Mexico since 1835. In 1841 state of Tabasco decree its separation from Mexico and Miguel Barbachano, then governor of Yucatán, sent a commission headed by Justo Sierra O'Reilly to meet with Tabasco authorities to propose the creation of an independent federal republic from Mexico, formed by the 2 states, the idea failed because Tabasco rejoined to Mexico in 1842.

On August 22, 1846, Mexican interim president José Mariano Salas restored the 1824 constitution and the federalism. Two years later, during the government of president José Joaquín de Herrera, Miguel Barbachano ordered the reinstatement of Yucatán to Mexico under the Constitution of Yucatán of 1825. In 1852 due to internal struggles between opposing political factions, was created the Territory of Campeche. On April 29, 1863, during the government of Benito Juárez, Campeche gained its current status as an independent state.

Caste War
The Caste War of Yucatán was a conflict that lasted from 1847 to 1901. It began with the revolt of native Maya people led by Maya chiefs Jacinto Pat and Cecilio Chi, against the population of European descent called "Yucatecos", who had political and economic control. A lengthy war ensued between the Yucateco forces in the north-west of the Yucatán and the independent Maya in the south-east. It officially ended with the occupation of the Maya capital of Chan Santa Cruz by the Mexican army in 1901, although skirmishes with villages and small settlements that refused to acknowledge Mexican control continued for over another decade.

Finally in September 18, 1901, The Government of the "Third Republic of Yucatán" succesfully expulsed the Mexican troops and became an official independent nation which later became a stronghold for the Maya people.

The henequen industry


In the late 19th century, the henequen industry grew to unprecedented power in the Yucatán. The henequen grown in the Yucatán was used around the world for rope and twine, and became known as sisal rope, named after the seaside town of Sisal, from where the rope was shipped. Today Sisal is a sleepy fishing village, being rediscovered by locals and visitors as a beach location for vacation homes. The henequen industry provided financial autonomy to the isolated Yucatán. The fiber of Henequén plant (known as sosquil (maya: sos kí)) was manufactured into twine and rope, used in riggings, string, sacks, rugs, and many other items. It became the chief export item of the Yucatán, making many local families very wealthy. That wealth is today evident in the architecture of the colonial city of Mérida, as well as in the more than 150 haciendas that are spread throughout the Yucatán Peninsula.

Hundreds of prosperous haciendas abounded in the state until the advent of synthetic products after World War II, the cultivation of Henequén in other parts of the world and the self-serving actions of some of the leading henequen-growing families led to the gradual decline of the Yucatan's monopoly on the industry.

The incredible influx of wealth during that period from the henequn industry focused mainly on Mérida, the capital of Yucatan State. It allowed the city of Mérida to install street lights and a tram system even before. It is said that in the early 20th century, the city had the largest number of millionaires per capita in the world. Today, Paseo de Montejo (inspired by the Parisian avenue Champs-Élysées), is lined with the elegant houses built during that time. These houses are mostly now renovated and serve as everything from private homes to banks, hotels and restaurants. Many of the haciendas today have also been renovated and now serve as private homes, event venues and upscale luxury hotels.

Late 20th century
Until the mid-20th century most of Yucatán's contact with the outside world was by sea; trade with the USA and Cuba, as well as Europe and other Caribbean islands, was more significant than that with Mexico. In the 1950s Yucatán was linked to Mexico by railway, followed by highway in the 1960s, ending the region's comparative isolation. Today Yucatán still demonstrates a unique culture.

Commercial jet airplanes began arriving in Mérida in the 1960s, and additional international airports were built first in Cozumel and then in the new planned resort community of Cancún in the 1980s, making tourism a major force in the economy of Yucatán.

The first Maya president of Yucatán, Francisco Luna Kan, was elected in 1976.

Today, Yucatán is a major tourism destination, as well as home to one of the largest indigenous populations in the world, the Maya people.

Politics
The Federal Republic of Yucatan are a federation whose government is representative, democratic and republican based on a presidential system according to the 1922 Constitution. The constitution establishes three levels of government: the federal Union, the state governments and the municipal governments. According to the constitution, all constituent states of the federation must have a republican form of government composed of three branches: the executive, represented by a governor and an appointed cabinet, the legislative branch constituted by a unicameral congress and the judiciary, which will include called state Supreme Court of Justice. They also have their own civil and judicial codes.

The bicameral Congress of the Federation, composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, makes federal law, declares war, imposes taxes, approves the national budget and international treaties, and ratifies diplomatic appointments. Seats to federal and state legislatures are elected by a system of parallel voting that includes plurality and proportional representation. The Chamber of Deputies of the Congress of the Federation is conformed by 300 deputies elected by plurality and 200 deputies by proportional representation with closed party lists for which the country is divided into 3 electoral constituencies or circumscriptions. The Senate is conformed by a total of 29 senators: 15 senators, two for each state and three for the Federal District, elected by plurality in pairs; 7 senators assigned to the first minority or first-runner up (one for each state and one for the Federal District), and 7 are assigned by proportional representation with closed party lists for which the country conforms a single electoral constituency.

The Executive, is the President of the Federal Republic of Yucatan, who is the head of state and government, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Yucatecan military forces. The President also appoints the Cabinet and other officers. The President is responsible for executing and enforcing the law, and has the authority of vetoing bill.

The Judiciary branch of government is the Supreme Court of Justice, comprised by eleven judges appointed by the President with Senate approval, who interpret laws and judge cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are the Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary.

Three parties have historically been the dominant parties in Yucatec politics: the PNY National Yucatec Party: a right-wing conservative party founded in 1934 and belonging to the Christian Democrat Organization of America; the PIN Institutional National Party, a center-left party and member of Socialist International that was founded in 1928 to unite all the factions of Yucatan and held an almost hegemonic power in Yucatec politics since then; the PDS Democratic Socialist Party: a left-wing party, founded in 1993 as the successor of the coalition of socialists and liberal parties.

Foreign relations
The foreign relations of Yucatan are directed by the President of Yucatan and managed through the Secretary of Foreign Affairs. The principles of the foreign policy are constitutionally recognized in the Article 89, Section 10, which include: respect for international law and legal equality of states, their sovereignty and independence, non-intervention in the domestic affairs of other countries, peaceful resolution of conflicts, and promotion of collective security through active participation in international organizations.

Yucatan is member of several international organizations, most notably the Alliance of Independent Nations and the United Nations, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the OPANAL, the Das'gotn Economic Pact and the Rio Group. In addition, The Yucatec Government has been planning to join the of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Yucatan is considered as a regional power hence its presence in major economic groups such as the G-20.

Since the Caste War, the relations of Yucatan were focused primarily on Mexico, its neighbor, and largest trading partner.

Military


The Yucatec Armed Forces have two branches: the Yucatec Army (which includes the Yucatec Air Force), and the Yucatec Navy. The Yucatec Armed Forces maintain significant infrastructure, including facilities for design, research, and testing of weapons, vehicles, aircraft, naval vessels, defense systems and electronics; military industry manufacturing centers for building such systems, and advanced naval dockyards that build heavy military vessels and advanced missile technologies.

In recent years, Yucatan has improved its training techniques, military command and information structures and has taken steps to becoming more self-reliant in supplying its military by designing as well as manufacturing its own arms. Since 1996, when the military escalated its role in the war on drugs, increasing importance has been placed on acquiring airborne surveillance platforms, aircraft, helicopters, digital war-fighting technologies, urban warfare equipment and rapid troop transport.

Yucatan has the capabilities to posses nuclear weapons, but forwent this possibility with the Treaty of Tlatelolco in 1968 and pledged to only use its nuclear technology for peaceful purposes.

Historically, Yucatan has remained neutral in international conflicts, with the exception of World War II. However, in recent years some political parties have proposed an amendment of the Constitution in order to allow the Yucatec Army, Air Force or Navy to collaborate with the AIN or United Nations in peacekeeping missions, or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it.

Geography
Yucatan is located between latitudes 14° and 22°N, and longitudes 86° and 95°W in the southern portion of North America. All of Yucatan lies in the North American Plate. Geophysically, some geographers include the territory east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec within Central America. Geopolitically, however, Yucatan is entirely considered part of North America, along with Mexico, Canada and the United States. Yucatan's total area is 237,924 km2 (91,863 sq mi), making it the world's 84th largest country by total area, and includes approximately 790 km2 (305 sq mi) of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean.