Queensland

Queensland, officially the Federation of Queensland, is a country consisting of ten states, two autonomous territories, and a land area of 1,730,368 square kilometers. Queensland, along with Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and 13 other nations, is a Commonwealth realm, and is therefore ruled by Queen Elizabeth II. As of 2006, the population is approximately 3.9 million, however the population is rapidly growing, and the current estimates are close to 4.6 million. The capital, and the largest city of Queensland, is Brisbane. Since the Pacific War, Queensland has practiced neutrality in most conflicts in its region, and conflicts outside Oceania. Therefore, with the exception of one unit in the Afghanistan War, Queensland is not part of any military coalition in current global conflicts. Although, the nation is an active member of numerous organizations, such as the Commonwealth of Nations, the APEC, the Pacific Islands Forum, the East Asia Summit, the World Trade Organization, the United Nations, the Alliance of Independent Nations, and a founding member of the Liberal Monarchist Bloc.

Queensland, in early 20th century, was the only colony on the island of Australia to not join the new Federation. Industrialists and workers in Queensland created a strong opposition, against joining a new nation with rival colonies such as New South Wales and Victoria. In 1901, Queensland was excluded from the creation of Australia, and in 1903, the nation of Queensland became a reality. Since then, the government has adopted the Statute of Westminster and the Queensland Act.

Aboriginal people
For over one hundred thousand years, from as far back as 120,000 BCE, modern humans have lived on the Australian continent. Aborigine evidence dates back to 40,000 BCE.

Current archeological evidence shows that in 120,000 BCE, humans near current-day Australian Capital Territory intentionally started a conflagration to clear land to settle in. Around 56,000 BCE, humans living in rock shelters, in current-day Northern Territory state of Australia, decorated themselves and painted rocks with stone tools and the red ochre pigment.

In 30,000 BCE, Aborigines living near current-day Melbourne had primitive fireplaces and underground oven. There is evidence of bread-making in the same period in New South Wales, and bone-beads and other artefacts in Western Australia.

And around 10,000 BCE, there is evidence of boomerangs, used by the Aborigines to hunt waterfowl in South Australia.

In around 8,000 BCE, the land bridge between modern-day Papua New Guinea and Australia was submerged by the rising sea levels, forming the Torres Strait Islands.

European explorations
The first European contact with the Aboriginal peoples in Queensland happened in 1606, on the western coast of Cape York. The captain, Willem Jansz, and the crew of the ship Duyfken from the Netherlands, had sailed into the Gulf of Carpentaria. Here, they explored the coastal area of northern & northwestern Queensland, being the first non-Aboriginal people to do so.

Then, more than a century and a half later, in 1770, Captain James Cook mapped the eastern coastline of Queensland on the Endeavour. Cook also established the colony of New South Wales in eastern Australia under King George III.

Establishment of the colony
After the beginning of the New South Wales colony, the First Fleet was sent from Portsmouth, in Britain, to current-day Sydney. The fleet began its journey in May 1787, and landed in January 1788, establishing the first European settlement (convict settlement) in Australia, with Admiral Arthur Phillip as the first governor of the colony.

During Phillip's term, attempts at an agricultural sector failed, and most of the convicts coming to the colony were sick and/or emaciated. As a result, the colony was in a starvation crisis. Although the colony eventually got through the crisis, Governor Phillip, due to illness, left the colony to return to Britain in 1792. John Hunter became the second governor of the colony in 1795.

Thirteen years later, the Rum Rebellion took place in Sydney against Governor William Bligh. Bligh's government was overthrown in an armed coup, replaced by Governor Lachlan Macquarie two years later. During Macquarie's term, New South Wales became less like a penal colony, and more like a free settlement. Under Macquarie, the New South Wales government became more liberal, and people in the colony had more civil rights and freedoms.

In 1821, Governor Macquarie was replaced by Sir Thomas Brisbane. In 1823, Governor Brisbane dispatched John Oxley, explorer, to find new areas on the continent to establish a penal colony. Only two years later, after Oxley's journey north, the Moreton Bay convict settlement was relocated to the shores of current-day Brisbane River. Between 1828 and 1830, the Old Windmill and the Commissariat Store were constructed in Brisbane with convict labor. Today, they are the only remaining buildings in the nation constructed using convicts.

The Moreton Bay district was inaugurated as a free settlement in 1842, becoming the first free settlement in Queensland. Following Moreton Bay, in 1847, the Port Curtis settlement (today Gladstone) was inaugurated. Moreton Bay and Port Curtis soon thrived from trade with Britain. The Moreton Bay Courier, the local newspaper of the Moreton Bay district, began in 1846 as the first newspaper in Queensland. Twenty years later, it would publish a new edition, the Queenslander.

In 1859, with the signing of the Letters Patent by Queen Victoria, Queensland became an independent colony with its own government. Sir George Ferguson Bowen, the first governor of Queensland, read the proclamation of the Colony of Queensland to the public in Brisbane on 10 December 1859. The Municipality of Brisbane was established the same year; John Petrie became the first mayor of the city.

The first general elections in the colony were held the next year, with the first premier, Robert George Herbert, elected in 1860.

Growth of the colony & annexation of New Guinea
From 1860 to 1900, the colonial government focused on healthcare, education, sports, trade, and transportation.

In 1864, Queensland played New South Wales in a cricket game for the first time. The first women's hospital in the colony also opened this year. In 1866, Queensland currency was printed. The government began free primary education in 1870. The flag of Queensland, which is still the official national flag today, was approved and adopted in 1876. And, in intercity transportation, the Brisbane-Wallangarra railroad was opened in 1887.

A gold rush began in the 1860s, following the discovery of gold in towns like Gympie and Canoona. The colonial government managed to take advantage of the search for gold, as immigrants and other gold miners paid large fees to the colony to obtain licenses and other official papers, which would legally enable them to begin mining.

In 1883, Premier Thomas McIlwraith hastily annexed southern New Guinea, Papua, without approval from the British government, to prevent the German Empire from controlling the territory. Southern New Guinea became a British protectorate a year later in 1884, and was annexed in 1888, becoming the Territory of Papua.

A major dispute between union workers in the town of Barcaldine led to the Great Shearers' Strike in 1891. The Queensland Labor Party (QLP) was formed the same year as a result of the incident. The Social Democratic Workers' Party of Queensland, another socialist party with a similar platform, was formed in 1894.

In 1899, the QLP, led by Anderson Dawson, was elected in the 1899 general elections, becoming the first democratically-elected socialist government in any colony or nation in the world. Though, Dawson's government was only in power for six days, before it was defeated in parliament the very next week.

1898-1900 Federation referendums
In 1898, the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia held referendums. Citizens in these colonies voted, whether to join the Australian federation, or to remain independent of the union. The majority of the citizens in all four colonies voted to join the federation. However, due to New South Wales failing to reach its quota of 80,000 "yes" votes, the referendum was held once again in all four colonies the next year, and also in Queensland.

The colonial government of Queensland passed the Federation Enabling Act in 1899, which would allow Queensland to hold referendums, like any other colony. But the debate between the Billites, those who supported a united commonwealth, and anti-Billites, those who were opposed to it, was only growing. Billites argued that trade barriers would be gone, and a united colony would be able to defend itself better, while anti-Billites argued that colonies would not be equally represented, Queensland would lose power and advantages as an independent colony, and competition from Victoria and New South Wales would hurt businesses in Queensland and/or establish a monopoly in the new commonwealth.

In the second referendum in 1899, the vast majority in most colonies voted in favor. In Queensland, while the majority voted in favor, the numbers were very close. 38,488 out of 69,484 voters voted "yes", a 55 percent-majority. However, business owners and other anti-Billites contested the results, and demanded a second referendum in Queensland.

Entrepreneur and anti-Billite, Mackenzie August Kelley, gave his famous speech, The Struggles of Our Dear Colony, on 6 September 1899 in front of the Government House in Brisbane. Even the location was planned, as this was the place where Governor Bowen had announced the proclamation of the Queensland colony in 1860. In his speech, Kelley stated that the mere idea of a federation was an "insult" and an "attack" on the workers and business owners of Queensland. Kelley appealed to the voting-eligible citizens, and asked them to vote with "labour and liberty in mind" in the next referendum. Kelley's new movement, with the ideology of Queenslander conservative nationalism, attracted many supporters, who organized protests and petitions to gain attention and support for their goals.

While the British Parliament had already enacted the Commonwealth Constitution Bill, the last referendum, the 1900 referendum, was held in the colonies of Queensland and Western Australia. This would be Western Australia's only chance, and Queensland's last chance, in joining the commonwealth or remaining independent. Western Australia voted in favor, with 70 percent majority. Queensland, by slight majority of 52 percent, voted against commonwealth.

After further protests and petitions, and the clear results of the 1900 referendum, the responsible government in Queensland was pressured into exclusion. Queensland was thus excluded from the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act.

With the creation of a constitution, the offices of prime minister and governor-general, and the establishment of the new national government and its structure and powers, the colony became the Federation of Queensland, an independent British dominion, which commenced on 1 October 1903 following royal assent.

Dominion to World War I
Almost immediately after Queensland's establishment as a separate dominion, Britain officially transferred control of the territory of Papua to Queensland. With the signing of the Papua Act, the territory became a colonial possession of Queensland.

The municipality of Brisbane, the new national capital, became a city in 1904.

In 1909, with support from incumbent prime minister, Charley Esther (first prime minister from the Social Democratic Workers' Party), women's suffrage was granted. In 1905, Esther had supported the abolition of death penalty in Queensland. Many believe that Prime Minister Esther supported these progressive policies to garner votes, especially from women and former convicts, in the elections. As expected, Esther and the SDWP won the federal elections in 1910, the first general elections where women were allowed to vote. Esther thus became the first prime minister to serve more than one term.

Prime Minister Esther announced two years later that, due to illness, he would not run in the 1913 federal elections. The SDWP chose Dr. Marcus Cardinal as its candidate for prime ministership in 1913. Cardinal, though, unlike his Conservative opponent Georges Severault who promised "bread on every plate", did not make any strong promises in his campaign. Cardinal lost to Severault with less than forty percent of the vote.

World War I
On 28 June 1914, Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in the city of Sarajevo. Prime Minister Severault condemned the assassination when the news traveled to Queensland.

One month after the assassination, Austria declared war on Serbia. Russia, in turn, declared war on Austria. Germany then entered and invaded Belgium to get to France. To protect Belgium's neutrality, Britain declared war on Germany. Queensland, as a British dominion, was forced into the war.

By December, the 1st Queenslander Imperial Expeditionary Force, abbreviated as QIEF-1, was training alongside Australian and New Zealander troops in Egypt. Approximately 12,000 men signed up for QIEF-1, while another 6,000 signed up for QARF-1, the 1st Queensland Australasian Regional Force. QARF-1, as its name suggests, fought in the Pacific theater.

As QIEF-1, the European force, part of QANHNZAC, was sent to the Western Front and the Dardanelles, QARF-1, the Pacific force, helped invade and occupy German colonies in the region. German Samoa fell to the British by the end of August 1914. In September, QARF-1 defeated Imperial German forces in Kaiser-Wilhelmsland in the Battle of Bita Paka, capturing German New Guinea and forcing the German East Asiatic Squadron to flee.

Back in Europe, QIEF-1 and the other QANHNZAC forces invaded the Gallipoli peninsula, with the landing beginning on 25 April 1915. There were thousands of casualties in the landing, especially in Scrubby Knoll, where a division of QIEF-1 fought the Turkish 57th Regiment, which were both wiped out.

Growing QIEF-1 and QARF-1 casualties in the war made the Queensland public less enthusiastic for the war effort. The vast amounts of anti-German and pro-war propaganda eventually could not compete with the rapidly-increasing number of casualties. Ottoman victory in Gallipoli in 1916 contributed heavily to the anti-war sentiment in the public. Yet, Queenslanders were still supporting Britain, the motherland, and the other Allied nations, and no one really became more sympathetic to Germans.

Prime Minister Severault suggested conscription to fight back against the anti-war sentiment and send more troops overseas despite the growing objection. In addition, Severault demanded increased media censorship and propaganda, as he would not allow anti-war sentiments to gain any greater influence.

Concentration camps
Citizens and residents of German, Turkish, and Austrian backgrounds, along with prisoners of war, were sent to concentration camps in Longreach, Cairns, Cooktown, and other parts of Queensland. The Queensland public was not informed of this shipment of people considered enemies to such camps, and many didn't know of the existence of these camps.

While the prisoners were mostly left on their own in these camps and they were officially protected by the Queensland government, abuse by guards did occur. More than 30 prisoners testified that they witnessed beatings and/or were beaten by the guards during their time in the concentration camps. Five of these prisoners, from the same camp, said that they had even witnessed executions and prisoners threatened at gunpoint.

In 1962, the Queensland government, under Prime Minister Daniel J. Lebautton, launched an investigation against the former concentration camps from these testimonies. The investigation lasted 17 years and concluded in September 1979. The government did not find evidence of executions (which, the government claims, is still a possibility), however found evidence of heavy abuse of prisoners. Two officers and five guards, who had survived and whom there was evidence against, were arrested and prosecuted.

The government officially apologized to the victims and prisoners of the concentration camps in 1980 and has offered monetary reparations.

1916 elections
The 1916 federal elections would determine the amount of Queensland involvement in the war. Severault's Conservative government was running against the LabourSocial coalition led by Leader of the Opposition William Marie Ryder. The LabourSocial coalition was established in 1915 as the merging of the centre-left opposition parties in the Queensland Parliament, the Labor Party and the Social Democratic Workers' Party. The Conservative Party, being the only centre-right party represented in the parliament at the time, failed to establish a coalition, and was alone. However, the Conservative Party was much larger than any other single party, and as a result was a formidable political opponent to LabourSocial.

Ryder, an anti-war social democrat, criticized the censorship and propaganda "released by the Prime Minister's government to force us to accept this awful war". While Ryder asserted that Queensland would always be a part of the British imperial family, and would always have a special connection to the motherland, he explained that this was something Queenslanders would have to choose on their own, without any interference or persuasion from the government. He pushed for "liberty and community", which became the slogan of his campaign.

Meanwhile, Severault argued in favor of providing as much support as possible for the British in the war, pointing out, in addition, that the war helped the nation's economy and its industries grow. This argument was summarized in his campaign speech in Cooktown on 8 March 1916, "If you think that I disagree with you that this Great War has had a terrible toll on Queenslander lives, I do not. I pray for those who have passed, and those who are there as we speak. But we must not forget that our industries have flourished and our living standards here, at home, have increased. Not to mention, the countless battles where our great motherland has defeated the Kaiser's forces with our help. Indeed. It would be no more than betrayal, and we would be no more than traitors, if we were to end our full support for Britain anytime, especially during this war. We must all remember our efforts in supporting our homeland and ending the Kaiser's terror in all parts of the world."

After an intense campaign, Ryder and the LabourSocial coalition won the elections in July 1916 by a very close margin, 53.3 percent of the vote. Ryder, as promised, canceled the Severault government's plans to begin conscription. In October 1916, he announced that the government would send no more than 3,000 additional troops to Europe, as this was the total amount of volunteers that had signed up and trained that year. Severault, if reelected, had planned for at least 8,500 additional troops with conscription.

End of World War I
Between 1916 and 1918, Allied forces won several major battles such as the Battle of Verdun, Battle of the Somme, and the Battle of Messines, causing Germany to launch the major Spring Offensive in March 1918, which, when it failed, led to the Hundred Days Offensive in August 1918. This offensive, Germany's last stand, failed by November, and Germany agreed to sign an armistice with the Allied nations on the morning of 11 November 1918.

The Treaty of Versailles was signed in the Parisian suburb of Versailles on 28 June 1919, five years exactly after the Austro-Hungarian archduke's assassination. Germany was forced to reduce its military, lose large parts of its mainland territory and all of its colonies. German New Guinea became the Territory of New Guinea, placed under the supervision and control of Queensland by the League of Nations as a mandate.

Prime Minister Ryder traveled to the Imperial Conferences in London in 1917 and 1918, representing Queensland there. On 1 May 1917, Queensland adopted Resolution IX, establishing Queensland as an autonomous dominion in the British Empire.

Ryder was reelected in the 1919 elections, with LabourSocial remaining in government. Many historians believe that this is due to Resolution IX and Queensland's signing of the Treaty of Versailles as an independent nation.

Statute of Westminster
In 1931, the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster, giving almost full independence to territories of the British Empire, including Queensland, and giving them equality with the United Kingdom. Queensland would adopt the statute in 1944, and pass a second legislation in 1945 allowing the Queensland federal government to revise its constitution. Though, the British Parliament still had the ability to revise the constitution on its own, an ability that would be revoked by Queensland in the 1986 Queensland Act.

1923 federal elections
In 1923, Prime Minister Ryder, for the third time, ran against Georges Severault who was now Leader of the Opposition. The third major candidate in 1923 was Populist leader Peter Rennald, representing the National People's Movement. Rennald was accused by both Ryder and Severault of having connections with Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini and the Austrofascist movement in Europe. Despite Rennald's denial of connections to fascism, he was depicted in posters and political cartoons as a puppet of Mussolini and Austrian Chancellor Ignaz Seipel. These depictions resulted in Rennald's loss of popularity. The elections ended with Ryder being reelected for third term in office with 59 percent of the popular vote, Severault receiving 36 percent, and Rennald receiving only two percent. Severault and Rennald both retired after the elections.

Parliament






The Queensland Parliament consists of the Queen of Queensland, the House of Representatives, and the Senate. The House of Representatives is the lower house of the bicameral Parliament, and has a total of 89 Parliament members. The House is dominated by an alliance between the right-wing Conservative Party of Queensland (member of the International Democrat Union) and the Libertarian Party, and the left-wing Queensland Labor Party (member of Socialist International). Unlike Australian legislature, but similar to New Zealand legislature, the Conservative Party, the largest centre-right party in Queensland, is the ruling party of the nation. 47 seats, or the majority of the Queensland House of Representatives, is currently controlled by the Conservative Party. The presiding officer is the Speaker. The current Speaker of the House is a member of the Libertarian Party. The number of representatives in each state depends on the population of the said state.

The Senate is the upper house of the Parliament, and has 120 Senators. Each state, with the two autonomous territories in addition, has ten senators, regardless of population. The Queensland Senate is also currently dominated by the Conservative/Libertarian Alliance and the Labor Party, with the vast majority of seats controlled by the two parties. The presiding officer is the President. The Senate President is a member of the Conservative Party. Unlike House representatives who serve three years, senators serve six years.

The Queensland Parliament is headquartered in the Parliament House in the capital, Brisbane.

Since 1912, eight foreign leaders have addressed the Queensland Parliament. These leaders have all addressed the Parliament during joint sessions. The list of leaders includes, President of Brazil Eurico Gaspar Dutra (1950), President of Turkey Celal Bayar (1959), President of West Germany Richard von Weizsacker (1992), and President of the United States Barack Obama (2009).

Electoral System
Throughout its history as part of the British Empire, and most of its history as a Commonwealth nation, Her Majesty's Government in Queensland had practiced a very popular voting method, first-past-the-post, also known as FPP. In 1994, the government changed the voting method to mixed-member proportional, or MMP.

Until the late 1990s, FPP was the dominant electoral system in Queensland. For decades, the party with the highest amount of votes won the general elections, and represented all of the citizens. The major parties, as a result, had much more representation in the Parliament and the legislature system than the smaller political parties. Leaders of smaller parties, along with university professors and experts on the topic, argued that the mathematics of first-past-the-post naturally rigged the elections in favor of the ruling parties. The system was also exposed to gerrymandering of geographical election districts, and the spoiler effect theoretically could allow smaller, minority movements to dominate the legislature, even though the majority of the population would disagree.

The majority of the Queensland population, unsatisfied with their parties being under-represented (or not represented) in the Parliament, or wanting prevent that from happening, voted to change the electoral system in the 1998 referendums. Near 85 percent of voters, when asked about the current system during the referendums, voted against retaining FPP for parliamentary elections. When asked to choose a new system, out of MMP, PV, SM, and STV, 63 percent chose the MMP system by majority. The Parliament officially changed the voting method in early 1999, five years after New Zealand, another Commonwealth nation in Oceania, had switched.

The MMP has been called by its supporters in Queensland as “the most democratic voting system” in the world. This is because, unlike the FPP, which led to only few parties dominating the government, the MMP encourages political diversity and allows much smaller parties to be represented along with larger parties.

In general elections, voters cast two votes. The first vote is for a candidate to become a Parliament member. Like first-past-the-post, the candidate that receives the most votes wins the electoral district where he/she ran. However, the second vote is for a political party. The party may be the same as the candidate’s affiliation, or another party. Based on the votes, the political parties are represented in the government as proportional to the results as possible.

Similar to New Zealand, the MMP system in Queensland also has a set of thresholds. These thresholds ensure that the parties represented are all still necessary, and in support by the public.

To be granted Parliament seats, a party must:

1. Receive at least five percent of the national vote in the latest general election, or receive at least ten percent of the national vote in the previous general election.

and/or

2. ''Receive at least one electoral seat in the latest election, or receive at least three electoral seats in the previous general election.

A party that fails to reach either threshold will not be granted seats.''

Foreign Affairs


Her Majesty's Government in Queensland has embassies and other diplomatic missions in Shihaisha and Atarashima. The nations of Shihaisha and Atarashima also have missions in Queensland.

Queensland maintains diplomatic missions in over 100 nations worldwide, with a large number of missions in Commonwealth nations such as the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, India, and South Africa, and non-Commonwealth nations such as Indonesia, China, Turkey, Brazil and Russia.

As a member of several intergovernmental organizations and international trading unions, Queensland trades with many nations in Asia and nations bordering the Pacific Rim.

The QANZUS defense treaty (Queensland, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States), and the QNNDP (Queensland, New Holland, and Neu Westfalen), are currently the only two military alliances that the Queensland Federation is an active member of, and QANZUS is the only alliance in which Queensland forces frequently exercise with American, Australian, and New Zealander forces. Of the four QANZUS nations, Queensland committed the least amount of troops for Operations Enduring Freedom. Queensland sent 25 troops, compared to 200 New Zealand troops and 1500 Australian troops.

Following the embassy attacks in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula in September 2012, Queensland removed its ambassador from Libya, and closed its embassy in Tripoli. According to the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, the Queensland Federation will not "maintain diplomatic missions in nations that fail to meet the security guidelines, or that fail to protect the life and welfare of ambassadors during emergencies."

The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade is responsible for all international relations, and policies of the Federation abroad.

Military
The Queensland Army has 3,900 regular troops, 1,300 active reserves, and 750 standby reserve troops. The Royal Navy has 2,200 permanent personnel, 380 active reserve personnel, and five commissioned ships. The Royal Air Force has 1,800 personnel and 35 aircraft. The Queensland Royal Defence Force (QRDF) is responsible for protecting the Queensland Federation in the event of an actual threat to the nation.

With the exception of one unit of the Queensland Army currently engaged in Jowzjan province in northern Afghanistan, the armed forces are not involved in any armed conflicts right now, and have not been involved in most major conflicts since 1945, due to the Federation practicing strict neutrality in most cases.